The Reproductive system

The ability to reproduce is one of the unifying characteristics of all living things. Sexual reproductiotl produces offspring that are genetically different from their parents. Asexual reproduction produces offspring genetically identical to their parent.
Asexual Reproduction
Fission, budding, fragmentation, and the formation of rhizomes and stolons are some of the mechanisms that allow organisms to reproduce asexually. The hydra produces buds; starfish can regenerate an entire body from a fragment of the original body. Asexual reproduction allows an organism to rapidly produce many offspring without the time and resources committed to courtship, finding a mate, and mating. The lack of genetic variability in asexually reproducing populations can be detrimental when enVironmental conditions (for which all. the clones are so well adapted) change quickly.
Sexual Reproduction
In sexual reproduction new individuals are produced by the fusion of haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote. Sperm are male gametes, ova (ovum singular) are female gametes. Meiosis pr,oduces cells that are genetically distinct from each other; fertilization is the fusion of two such distinctive cells that produces a unique new combination of alleles, thus increasing variation on wbich natural selection can operate.
Rotifers will reproduce asexually when conditions are favorable by having females produce eggs by mitosis. When conditions deteriorate, rotifers will reproduce sexually and encase their zygotes inside a resistant sbell. Once conditions improve, these eggs hatch into diploid individuals. Rotifers thus use sexual reproduction as way to survive a deteriorating environment.
Human Reproduction and Development
Human reproducti?n employs internal fertilization, and depends on the integrated action of hormones, the nervous system, and the reproductive system. Gonads are sex organs that produce gametes. Male gonads are the testes, which produce sperm and male sex hormones. Female gonads are the ovaries, which produce eggs (ova) and female sex hormones.
The Male Reproductive System
Testes are suspended outside the abdominal cavity by the scrotum. a pouch of skin that keeps the testes close or far from the body at an optimal temperature for sperm development. Seminiferous tubules are inside each testis, and are where sperm are produced by meiosis. About 250 meters (850 feet) of tubules are packed into each testis. Spermatocytes inside the tubules divide by meiosis to produce spermatids that in turn develop into mature sperm.
Spermatogenesis
Sperm production begins at puberty at contin'ues throughout life, with several hundred million sperm being produced each day. Once sperm form they move into the epididymis, where they mature and are stored.
Male Sex Hormones
The anterior pituitary produces follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Action of LH is controlled by the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). LH stimulates cells in the seminiferous tubules to secrete testosterone, which has a role in sperm production and developing male secondary sex characteristics. FSH acts on cells to help in sperm maturation. Negative feedback by testosterone 'controls the actions of GnRH.
Sexual Structures
Sperm pass through, the vas deferens and connect to a short ej aculatory duct that connects to the urethra. The urethra passes through the penis and opens to the outside. Secretions from the seminal vesicles add fructose and prostaglandins to sperm as they pass. The prostate gland secretes a milky alkaline fluid, The bulbourethral gland
secretes a mucus-like fluid that provides lubrication for intercourse. Sperm and secretions make up semen.
The Female Reproductive System
The female gonads, ovaries, are located within the lower abdominal cavit.
The ovary contains many follicles composed of a developing egg surrounded by an outer layer of follicle cells. Each egg begins oogenesis as a primary oocyte. At birth each female carries a lifetime supply of developing oocytes, each of which is in Prophase I. A developing egg (secondary oocyte) is released each month form puberty until menopause, a total of 400-500 eggs.
Ovarian Cycles
After puberty the ovary cycles between a follicular phase (maturing follicles) and a luteal phase (presence of the corpus luteum). These cyclic phases are interrupted only by pregnancy and continue until menopause, when reproductive capability ends. The ovarian cycle lasts usually 28 days. During the first phase, the oocyte matures within a follicle. At midpoint of the cycle, the oocyte is released from the ovary in a process known as ovulation. Following ovulation the follicle forms a corpus luteum which synthesizes and prepares hormones to prepare the uterus for pregnancy.
The secondary oocyte passes into the oviduct (fallopian tube or uterine tube). The oviduct is connected to the uterus.
The uterus has an inner layer, the endometrium, in which a fertilized egg implants. At the lower end of the uterus the cervix connects the uterus to the vagina. The vagina receives the penis during intercourse and serves as the birth canal.
External Genitals
The female external genitals are collectively known as the vulva. The labia minora is a thin membrane of folded skin just outside the vaginal opening. The labia majora cover and protect the genital area. A clitoris, impOliant in arousal, is a short shaft with a sensitive tip covered by a fold of skin.
Hormones and Female Cycles
The ovarian cycle is hormonally regulated in two phases. The follicle secretes estrogen before ovulation; the corpus luteum secretes both estrogen and progesterone after ovulation. Hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary control the ovarian cycle. The ovarian cycle covers events in the ovary; the menstrual cycle occurs in the uterus.
Menstrual cycles vary from between 15 and 31 days. The first day of the cycle is the first day of blood flow (day 0) known as menstruation. During menstruation the uterine lining is broken down and shed as menstrual flow. FSH and LH are secreted on day 0, beginning both the menstrual cycle and the ovarian cycle. Both FSH and LH stimulate the maturation of a single follicle in one of the ovaries and the secretion of estrogen. Rising levels of estrogen in the blood trigger secretion of LH, which stimulates follicle maturation and ovulation (day 14, or midcycle). LH stimulates the remaining follicle cells to form the corpus luteum, which produces both estrogen and progesterone. Estrogen and progesterone stimulate the development of the endometrium and preparation of the uterine inner lining for implantation of a zygote. If pregnancy does not occur, the drop in FSH and LH cause the corpus luteum to disintegrate. The drop in hormones also causes the sloughing off of the inner lining of the uterus by a series of muscle contractions of the uterus.
Sexually Transmitte~ Diseases
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) can affect the sex partners, fetus, and newborn infants. STDs are grouped into three categories.
Category One
STDs that produce inflammation of the urethra, epididymis, cervix, or oviducts. Gonorrhea and chlamydia are the most common STDs in this category. Both diseases can be treated and cured with antibiotics, once diagnosed.
Category Two
STDs that produce sores on the external genitals. Genital herpes is the most common disease in this class. Symptoms of herpes can be treated by antiviral drugs, but the infection cannot be cured. Syphilis is a bacterially caused infection, and can, if left untreated, cause serious symptoms and death. However, the disease is curable 'vvith antibiotics.
Category Three
This class of STDs includes viral diseases that affect organ systems other than those of the reproductive system. AIDS and hepatitis B are in this category. Both can be spread by sexual contact or blood. Infectious individuals may appear symptom-free for years after infection.
Reproduction: New and Improved
New techniques have been developed to enhance or reduce the chances of conception. Social conventions and governing laws have developed far slower than this new technology, leading to controversy about moral, ethical, and legal grounds for the uses of such technologies.
The separation of intercourse from pregnancy uses methods blocking one of the three stages of reproduction
- release and transport of gametes
- fertilization
- implantati on
Effectiveness
Various contraceptive methods have been developed; none of which is 100% successful at preventing pregnancy or the transmission of STDs. Abstinence is the only completely effective method.
Methods
Physical prevention (most effective) include vasectomy and tubal ligation. Vasectomy: the vas deferens connecting the testes with the urethra is cut and sealed to prevent the transport of sperm. Tubal ligation: the oviduct is cut and ends tied off to prevent eggs from reaching the uterus.
Oral contraceptives (birth control pills) usually contain a combination of hormones that prevent release of FSH and LH, inhibiting development of the follicle so that no oocytes are released. Time-release capsules (Norplant) can be implanted under the skin and offer long-term suppression of ovulati(m. RU-486, the so-called morning after pill, interferes with implantation of the blastula into the uterine wall. Its use as a contraceptive is very controversial.
Barrier methods employ physical (condom, diaphragm) or chemical (spermacides) means to separate the sperm from the egg. Male condoms are fitted over the erect penis; female condoms are placed inside the vagina. Only latex condoms prevent the spread of STDs. Diaphragms cap the cervix and block passage of the sperm into the uterus. Spermicidal jellies or foams kill sperm on contact and must be placed in the vagina prior to intercourse.
Reproductive Technologies Can Enhance Fertility
Blocked oviducts (often from untreated STDs) are the leading cause of infertility in females. Low sperm count, low motility, or blocked ducts are common causes of male infertility.
Hormone therapy can cause increased egg production. Surgery can open blocked ducts. About 40 of the cases are due to male problems, 40 due to female problems and the remaining 20% are caused by some unknown agent(s). In vitro fertilization (test-tube babies) is a widely used technique to aid infertile couples.
Fertilization and Cleavage
Fertilization has three functions:
1. transmission of genes from both parents to offspring
2. restoration of the diploid number of chromosomes reduced during meiosis
3. initiation of development in offspring
Steps in Fertilization
- Contact between sperm and egg
- Entry of sperm into the egg
- Fusion of egg and sperm nuclei
- Activation of development
Cleavage
Cleavage is the first step in development of ALL multicelled organisms. Cleavage converts a single celled zygote into a multi celled embryo by mitosis. Usually, the zygotic cytoplasm is divided among the newly formed cells. Frog embryos divide to produce 37,000 cells in a little over 40 hours.
The blastula is produced by mitosis of the zygote, and is a ball of cells surrounding a fluid-filled cavity (the blastocoel). The decreasing size of cells increases their surface to volume ratio, allowing for more efficient oxygen exchange between cells and Their environment. RNA and information carrying molecules are distributed to various parts of the blastula, and this molecular differentiation sets the stage for the layering of the body in the next phases of development.
Gastrulation
Gastrulation involves a series of cell migrations to positions where they will form the three primary cell layers.
- Ectoderm forms the outer layer.
- Endoderm forms the inner layer.
- Mesoderm forms the middle layer.
Ectoderm
Ectoderm farms tissues associated with outer layers: skin, hair, sweat glands, epithelium. The brain and nervous system also develop from the ectoderm.
Mesoderm
The mesoderm forms structures associated with movement and support: body muscles, cartilage, bone, blood, and all other connective tissues. Reproductive system organs and kidneys form from mesoderm.
Endoderm
The endoderm forms tissues and organs associated with the digestive and respiratory systems. Many endocrine structures, such as the thyroid and parathyroid glands, are formed by the endoderm. The liver, pancreas, and gall bladder arise from endoderm.
Invagination
Immediately after gastrulation, the body axis of the embryo begins to appear. Chordates have the cells that will form the nervous system fold into a neural tube (which will eventually form the spinal cord). The mesodenn forms the notochord (which will eventually form the vertebrae): The mesoderm at this time forms somites, which fonn segmented body parts, such as the muscles of the body wall.
Pattern Formation and Induction
Blastulation and gastrulation establish the .main body axis. Organ formation occurs in the next stage of the development of the embryo. During organ formation, cell division is accomplished by migration and aggregation.
Pattern formation is the result of cells "sensing" their position in the embryo relative to other cells and to form structures appropriate to that position. Gradients of informational molecules within the embryo have been suggested to provide the positional infonnation to cells. Homeobox genes are pattern genes; they coordinate with gradients of information molecules to establish the body plan and development of organs.
Induction is the process in which one cell or tissue type affects the developmental fate of another cell or tiss)le. As a cell begins to form certain structures. certain genes are turned on, others are turned off. Induction affects patterns of gene expression through physical contact or chemical signals. Formation of the vertebrate eye is a well known example.
Human Development
Fertilization, the fusion of the sperm and egg, usually occurs in the upper third of the oviduct. Thirty minutes after ejaculation, sperm are present in the oviduct, having traveled from the vagina through the uterus and into the oviduct. Sperm traverse this distance by the beating of their flagellum. Of the several hundred million sperm released in the ejaculation, only a few thousand reach the egg.
Only one sperm will fertilize the egg. One sperm fuses with receptors on the surface of the secondary oocyte, triggering a series of chemical changes in the outer oocyte membrane that prevent any other sperm from entering the oocyte. The entry of the sperm initiates Meiosis II in the oocyte. Fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei forms the diploid zygote.
Travels of a Young Zygote
Cleavage of the zygote begins while it is still in the oviduct, producing a solid ball of cells (morula). The morula enters the uterus, continuing to divide and becomes a blastocyst.
Implantation
The uterine lining becomes enlarged and prepared for implantation of the embryo in the trophoblast layer. Twelve days after fertilization, the trophoblast has formed a twolayered chorion. Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is secreted by the chorion, and prolongs the life of the corpus luteum until the placenta begins to secrete estrogen and progesterone. Home pregnancy tests work by detecting elevated hCG levels in the woman's urine.
Placenta
Maternal and embryonic structures interlock to form the placenta, the nourishing boundary between the mother's and embryo's systems. The umbilical cord extends from the placenta to the embryo, and transports food to and wastes from the embryo.
Stages
The period of time from fertilization to birth (usually 9 months) is divided into trimesters, each about three months long. During pregnancy the zygote undergoes 40 to 44 rounds of mitosis, producing an infant containing trillions of specialized cells organized into tissues and organs.
The First Trimester
The three embryonic tissue layers form. Cellular differentiation begins to form organs during the third week. After one month the embryo is 5 mm long and composed mostly of paired somite segments. During the second month most of the major organ systems form, limb buds develop. The embryo becomes a fetus by the seventh week. Beginning the eighth week, the sexually neutral fetus activates gene pathways for sex determination, fonning testes in XY fetuses and ovaries in XX fetuses. External genitalia develop.
The Second Trimester
The fetus increases in size during this trimester, and bony parts of the skeleton begin to form. Fetal movements can be felt by the mother.
The Last Trimester
During this trimester the fetus increases in size. Circulatory and respiratory systems mature in preparation for air breathing. Fetal growth during this time uses large parts of its mother's protein and calcium intake. Maternal antibodies pass to the fetus during the last month, conferring temporary immunity.
Birth
Birth is a positive feedback hormonal mechanism. During birth the cervix dilates to allow passage of the fetus. Uterine contractions propel the fetus through the birth canal, usually head first. Hormonal control. of the birth process involves the release of oxytocin and prostaglandins, which are stimulated by uterine contractions, which stimulate more hormones that cause more contractions ....etc.
The first stage of birth lasts from beginning of contractions to the full (10 cm) dilation of the cervix. Membranes of the amniotic fluid rupture, lubricating the vagina .Second Stage:Strong uterine contractions of a minute in duration separated by two to three minute intervals propel the fetus down the birth canal. Abdominal muscles relax in synchrony with the uterine contractions. Third Stage:After delivery of the baby, the umbilical cord is clipped and cut. The placenta (or afterbirth) in expelled through the vagma.
Milk Production
Nursing mothers have their hormone levels and uterine size return to normal much faster than non-nursing mothers. Breasts develop the capability for milk secretion about the mid point of pregnancy. Secretion of milk does not occur until delivery, and the action of prolactin. Suckling by the infant causes production of oxytocin to promote release of milk into the ducts emptying into the nipple.